Chapter 7 Metallic and Metallurgical Artifacts Steven R. Pendery This chapter reviews evidence from Saint Croix Island for imported European metal (including items manufactured locally), as well as evidence for metallurgy being practiced at the site. Metal artifacts recovered from early European settlement sites across the Americas speak to the motives and methods of contact and colonization. The search for new sources of metal was in itself a powerful incentive for early exploration and settlement. It was the metal brought by the French to the shores of Acadia for trade that generated true wealth. These items included copper alloy trinkets and metal scrap that could be re-worked into items for exchange in the Native American fur trade. Notarial evidence from Bordeaux shows that, in addition to iron tools and glass beads, copper trade items were commonly sent out on fur trading voyages in the sixteenth century (Fitzgerald and others 1993:44-57; Turgeon 2004). The Saint Croix Island artifact collection contains numerous examples of cut copper alloy sheets which may have originated as kettles. These items could pre-date, post-date, or correspond with the 1604-1613 French occupations. Copper alloy artifacts represented food storage and preparation (a spigot key, a porringer, and kettle fragments), domestic activity (thimbles and box handle bosses), trade or Native American industry (tubular beads, a coin or jeton, and scrap).¹ Compared with other early European settlements, there are relatively few tools or munitions represented at Saint Croix Island. Iron artifacts attributed to the French settlement on Saint Croix Island included architectural fasteners and hinges, tools (an axe head), knives and caulking irons, arms (including a cannonball found in the nineteenth century) and a gun rest. Lead artifacts also represented the maintenance and use of arms (musket balls and sprue), utensils (a spoon) and a weight later exploited for its lead. RECOVERY AND TREATMENT At Dochet’s Island the children were all three anxious to go ashore. They found the keeper very kind, and desirous of giving them all the information possible. He handed the boys a leaden bar and an iron hatchet which he had dug out of the ground lately. “Ye may keep ‘em, boys: they ain’t no use to me. Why, I could ha’ sot up a museum ef I’d ha’ kept all the things I’ve dug up. (Crowninshield 1886:340) Metal artifacts recovered by Wendell Hadlock during his 1950 excavations (Acadia National Park Accession SACR-1) had a different post-excavation trajectory than did those excavated by Jacob Gruber in 1969 (SACR-2; Maine Site # 97-2).² The Hadlock collection was accessioned at Acadia National Park in June, 1950, catalogued, and then treated at the Jamestown Preservation Laboratory in Virginia. No treatment records have been found, but catalogue cards bear notes implying that SACR 24-26, 81-91, 110, 111, and 126-141 were treated at the Jamestown Lab in January, 1951 (Acadia National Park n.d.:3). The collection excavated by Jacob Gruber’s team was removed to Temple University for cataloguing and analysis by 1970 after an initial field catalogue was prepared in 1969 (Temple University 1969).³ By spring, 1980, the metal 86 Chapter 7: Metallic and Metallurgical Artifacts artifacts in the collection had been returned to a NPS facility at the Charlestown Navy Yard in Boston. A conservation survey conducted by a professional metals conservator McManus (1980) reported that “Almost all of the nails have received some previous treatment as evidenced by surface appearances and wax coatings. There are no records which describe the methods or materials of treatment. It is suspected that prior to the application of the wax the nails were immersed in a strong acid…. It is also suspected that the acid residues were not washed from the surface following treatment” (McManus 1980:2). He recommended removal of the residues from previous treatment and optional re-coating the iron with wax or synthetic resin. The nonferrous metals that had been untreated remain in that condition. His appended survey checklist lists nine stable copper-alloy objects, two of which had been treated with wax. A sub-set of the metal objects was subsequently loaned for exhibit purposes to the Maine State Museum where conservation treatments were conducted by Madeleine Fang in 1990. She noted that many of the iron-alloy objects displayed a higher rate of spalling and flake loss than they had a decade earlier. Maine State Museum conservators removed old wax coatings, desalinized the artifacts by intensive washing, electrolysis or electrochemical methods, and mechanical cleaning (Acadia National Park n.d.:4). Surfaces were cleaned with tannic acid and a barrier coat of microcrystalline wax mixed with graphite was applied. Four copper-alloy objects were cleaned and treated as were six lead objects (Acadia National Park n.d.:4-5). IRON Wrought iron fasteners and tools were certainly included among the supplies taken on board de Mons’ fleet in 1604. In addition, there is evidence in Champlain’s 1613 plan of the Saint Croix Island habitation for a blacksmith’s shop on the west side of the settlement (see Figures 6.3, 6.4). It was for this forge that charcoal was prepared on the mainland. Whether forged in New France or Old, nearly all iron artifacts excavated at Saint Croix Island have deteriorated due to burial and post-excavation conditions. Few of the spikes found by Wendell Hadlock are present in the collection today. Many of the iron fasteners excavated by Gruber’s crew have since corroded. For this reason, Charles Tremer’s report on metals recovered during the 1969 excavations is a valuable document of the type and distribution of a large sample of metal of likely French origin (Tremer 1970). Figure 7.1 Iron fasteners: a-e, nails (1088, 1087); f, clenched nail (1088); g, spike (1131). (Drawing by Simon Pressey) Iron Fasteners Tremer’s report describes a total of 1005 complete nails, spikes or fragments recovered from the 1969 excavations (Tremer 1970:23-28). His analysis focuses on the wrought iron nails with ‘mushrooming’ heads, which he justifiably associates with the early seventeenth-century French occupation (Figure 7.1). Some early nineteenthcentury American or Canadian wrought nails may have been inadvertently included in the analysis. However, if present, their number would be few since occupation of the island shifted to the southern end by this time, and Tremer’s analysis focuses on artifacts from the north end of the site. Tremer classifies the fasteners into five categories: small Saint Croix Island, Maine 87 Figure 7.2 Distribution of nails and spikes in habitation Figure 7.3 Distribution of small nails, based on Tremer (1970). area, based on Tremer (1970). (under 4 cm, or 1.57 in in length), medium (between 4 and 8 cm, or 1.57 to 3.14 in), long (over 8 cm, but less than 12 cm, or 3.14 to 4.7 in), spike (over 12 cm, or 4.7 in) and fragment, where no size could be determined (Tremer 1970:24). One long nail from Feature 1 (937) was clinched while others exhibited bends (1088), and yet others exhibited ‘fire scale’ hardening resulting from exposure to high temperatures. 4 The highest concentrations of nails (per excavation unit) are clustered in vicinity of Walls A and B (Figure 7.2). Small nails, in particular, are concentrated in this area (Figure 7.3). Some of the only medium and large-sized nails preserving their original fire polish were also from this area, such as (1087), and a higher frequency of nail fragments was found here than elsewhere. Several of these nail fragments consist of medium and large nail heads exposed to fire. Only nine spikes are documented, with no clear pattern of distribution (Figure 7.1g). Spikes up to 22 cm (8.6 in) long were apparently used to fasten furring strips to the masonry walls of Fort Pentagoet (Faulkner and Faulkner 1987:90). Spikes do not seem to have been consistently used as a fastener in the French buildings at Saint Croix Island. Other types of iron fasteners may have been produced in France or locally from nail stock. Two slightly curved shanks with flattened ends were both recovered by Gruber’s team in the northwestern part of the habitation (Figures 7.4a, 7.4b). These may represent unperforated holdfasts or pattes de masonerie used for attaching wood to masonry (Kelso and Straube 2004:150). An example with perforations and a broader flange was recovered from Feature 1 (Figure 7.4c). Conversely, this also may represent a partially-formed side hinge (see Faulkner and Faulkner 1987:97, Figures 4.35, 4.37), or wall hook (Bradley and Camp 1994:207, Figure 5.364). Another spiked iron object of unknown function was recovered from the subsoil of the island cemetery (1731). An iron staple about 14 cm (5.5 in) in length and of unknown age was uncovered by the Gruber team in Test J (not identified on the 1969 site plan). A similar staple was also found by Barka at Fort La Tour (Barka 1965:268, Plate 74). 88 Chapter 7: Metallic and Metallurgical Artifacts Figure 7.4 Architectural hardware: a, b, unperforated holdfasts or pattes de masonerie (606, 744); c, perforated example (218); d, looped spike or hinge (214); e, pintle (941); f, possible tenter hook (1273). (Drawing by Simon Pressey) Figure 7.5 Distribution of architectural hardware. Most of the architectural iron pintles, hinges, pins and hooks recovered from Saint Croix Island were found in proximity to Walls A and B. A shutter latch pin, hinge, or looped spike was found in this area (Figure 7.4d). One L-shaped pintle with square shank section was recovered by Wendell Hadlock under the sod in his “3rd NS trench” between these two walls (89). A second pintle, in deteriorated condition, was found by Gruber’s team in Feature 1 (Figure 7.5). Both are similar to those found by the Faulkners at Pentagoet (1987:95) and by Norman Barka at Fort La Tour (1965:Plate 78). A third possible pintle or latch was recovered at the north end of the habitation (1099). An L-shaped iron pin often identified as a ‘tenter hook’ was recovered close to Wall A (Figure 7.4f). These were found in quantity at Pentagoet and at Pemaquid; the Faulkners posit their use as architectural fasteners often found in association with door or window hardware (Bradley and Camp 1994:204, 205; Faulkner and Faulkner 1987:102). Ottaway and Rogers argue that in York, England, similar forms were used as hooks for wall hangings (Ottaway and Rogers 2002:2738, 2739). Gruber noted that a possible shutter hinge part was found at the ‘carpenter’s house,’ although this item cannot be located in the collection (Gruber 1970:107). Other possible early architectural iron that cannot be located in the collections today include an iron door hinge (20508-69), an iron door latch (20-26-69), part of an iron hinge (20-450-69), two fragments of a key (20-732-69) and two door latch plates (20-731-69) (Tremer 1970:30-31; Temple University 1969). The type and distribution of architectural iron suggest that Walls A and B supported a wooden frame structure that was destroyed in place, rather than moved (Figure 7.5). The area of Walls A and B was the only zone of building debris (including brick, rock, clay and daub) which also contained a variety of iron fasteners and a heavy concentration of nails. This evidence supports the interpretation posited by Jacob Gruber, and supported by John Cotter, that Walls A and B are the Saint Croix Island, Maine 89 remains of the sieur de Mons storehouse which remained relatively intact until its destruction by the 1613 Samuel Argall expedition (Cotter 1978a:30). Tools The few iron tools recovered by the Hadlock and Gruber excavations represent wood working, hunting and fishing, and domestic use or trade activities. An iron axe head (211) of likely early seventeenthcentury French origin was recovered by the Gruber team due south of Wall A in the “subsod” at the north of the habitation (Figure 7.6). Its narrow, arching blade and massive poll are similar to the attributes of a hache commun as used for framing and construction in both military and non-military contexts (Figure 7.7a,b; Diderot 1993: Plates 79, 284 [1763]). An axe head of similar form, but with a longer eye socket, was recovered from the Cartier-Roberval site at CapRouge (Figure 7.8; Chretien 2006). In both cases, the blades are considerably narrower than those of later French iron axes associated with the fur trade (Faulkner and Faulkner 1987:143; Fitzgerald 1990). Kelso and Straube identify these narrower axes as both felling axes and splitting axes (2004:148, 149; Figure 7.6 Axe head (211). (Drawing by Simon Pressey) Figure 7.7 Plates 79 and 284 from Diderot (1993) [1763]: a, curved blade axe (Figure 22) used in constructing defenses; b, use of a mortise axe in framing. 90 Chapter 7: Metallic and Metallurgical Artifacts Figures 121, 180). No axes of this type were documented at Fort La Tour (Barka 1965: Figure 53). Other axes found by the Gruber team include a “iron broad-bladed axe head” from an unknown location (Tremer 1970:31 ). A fragment of an axe head was also recovered by Wendell Hadlock of undetermined age (141). Two possible caulking irons were found in undated contexts by Hadlock and Gruber. Caulking irons have been used in wooden boat construction and repair to the present day, so these examples may postdate the French period of occupation. A Figure 7.8 Axe head from Cartier-Roberval site at Cap-Rouge, curved iron object found at the habitation Québec (Courtesy of © CCNQ, Sarahlyne Tremblay) may have originated as a caulking iron, but is in poor condition and cannot be identified (Figure 7.9a). A wood-splitting wedge or caulking iron was found by Gruber’s team in the burial area at the south end of the island. It is nearly identical to one found at Fort Pentagoet (Figure 7.9b; Faulkner and Faulkner 1987:140). Evidence for fishing and hunting is presented by a wrought iron arrow point, harpoon, and fish hook, all recovered from Feature 1 (Figures 7.10a-c). The barbed iron point may represent the broken end of a fish Figure 7.9 Iron tools: a, possibly modified caulking iron (769); b, spear or harpoon as, generally, this form caulking iron or splitting wedge (1730). (Drawing by Simon Pressey) does not conform to European arrow or cross bow bolts of the period (Ottaway and Rogers 2002:2967-2969). Other examples with round tangs, but lacking barbs, were recovered from seventeenth-century contexts at Fort Albany, James Bay (Kenyon 1986:45,132). A second Saint Croix Island example was apparently recovered but is now lost. Two iron harpoons were recovered from the 1969 excavations at Saint Croix Island. One is slightly curved and may have originated as the tip of a large iron cod hook (Figure 7.10b). Similar artifacts have been recovered from a contact-period grave at Savin Hill, Massachusetts (Peabody Museum Acc. 10-54-10/80424). It lacks the perforations featured on the intact, forged harpoons recovered from Fort La Tour (Barka 1965:308, Plate 67). A harpoon could have been used for hunting sea mammals such as seals, which frequent the shoals around Saint Croix Island. A second harpoon head listed in the 1969 field catalog is missing from the present collection (Temple University 1969:5). The iron fish hook (Figure 7.10c), most probably a cod hook or hameçon, is similar to examples found in eighteenth-century contexts at the Palais de l’Intendant in Québec (Moussette 1994:Figure 41). A second example described as a fish hook, and which may have been modified from its original form, is now missing from the collection (Temple University 1969:2). Feature 1 also yielded an example of what may be an iron Leister point (a component of a fish spear) or an awl (Figure 7.10d). If an awl, it conforms with Fitzgerald’s Type 3A, nearly 14 cm (5.5 in) long and with a circular section (Fitzgerald 1990:Figures 81, 493-494). A second possible example was found in the same excavation unit (Figure 7.10e), and a third was listed by Tremer but cannot now be located. (Tremer 1970:30; Cotter 1978a30; Ottaway and Rogers 2002:Fig.1338). Saint Croix Island, Maine 91 Two possible iron knives or spear points are represented by items (573) and (202) (Figure 7.10f, g ). If knives, these would represent a type of whittle tang iron knife blade used for general purposes (Every and Richards 2005:144145). Spears could well have been a complement of the armaments of the ‘Swiss Guard.’ However, it is more likely that these served as trade items, as comparative examples have been found at other Maine contact period sites, and they also closely resemble some from the late sixteenth-century Mi’kmaq burials at the Hopps Site in Pictou, Nova Scotia (Bourque 2006, personal communication; Harper 1957). Fitzgerald (1990:430-413) notes that iron spears are more common at East Coast rather than Figure 7.10 Iron tools and hardware; a, arrow or spear point (215); b, harpoon tip or end of cod hook (219); c, fish hook (217); d-e, awls or Leister interior mortuary sites. Norman points (943, 212); f-g, knife or spear blades (1202, 573). (Drawing by Simon Barka distinguished between a Pressey) hand-forged tanged type of spear blade about 10 to 12 cm (3.9 to 4.7 in) in length possibly used in the fur trade, with socketed blades probably used by the French themselves (Barka 1965:311-312, Figure 97). Nicholas Denys (1598-1668) noted of Native Americans: But they practice still all the same methods of hunting with this difference, however, that in place of arming their arrows and spears with the bones of animals, pointed and sharpened, they arm them today with iron, which is made expressly for sale to them. Their spears now are made of a sword fixed at the end of a shaft of seven to eight feet in length. These they use in winter, when there is snow, to spear the Moose, or for fishing Salmon, Trout, and Beaver. They are also furnished with iron harpoons.... (Denys 1908:443 [1672]). Two additional iron tanged knives and two possible knife or spear points were uncovered in probable seventeenth-century archaeological contexts. One small tanged blade may represent either a knife, or a fragment of scissors or shears (Figure 7.11b; Ottaway and Rogers 2002:2749-2756). If it is a knife, it conforms with Fitzgerald’s rat-tail tanged Type Ib, Variant 4, found at the Sealey site (Fitzgerald 1990:455, 462-464). A knife with a Figure 7.11 (right) Knives: a, either rat-tailed tanged knife or fragment of scissors or shears; b, knife with thickened metal handle. (Drawing by the author) 92 Chapter 7: Metallic and Metallurgical Artifacts thickened metal handle conforming to Fitzgerald’s Type IC Variant 1 was uncovered in Feature 1 (Figure 7.11b; Fitzgerald 1990: 464, Figure 73). Fitzgerald indicates that in Ontario, these types of knives tend to be found on sites dating to ca. 1600-1630 (Fitzgerald 1990:464 ). The central portion of a scale tanged bone-handled knife was found in Test Q (the location of which does not appear in any of the 1969 site maps) and so its archaeological age and context cannot be evaluated . Figure 7.12 Box lock hasp (218), 15 cm long: a, front face and cross-section; b, reconstruction view. (Drawing a by Simon Pressey, b by the author) Furniture fittings A large iron stapled hasp was recovered from the southwestern portion of the habitation (Figure 7.12). This type of hasp was usually used to secure the lid of a trunk or chest. Its broadest point was closest to the hinge; on its back was a staple which fit into a slot in the face of the lock plate and container, where it was secured by a sliding bolt or keyed lock mechanism (Ottaway and Rogers 2002:2842-2844; Egan 2005:88, Figure 66). Armaments There is very little evidence for the arms and munitions used by the French at Saint Croix Island. Unfortunately, there is Figure 7.13 Musket rest (207), 9 cm across. (Drawing by Simon no list of supplies and armaments shipped Pressey) on board any of the French vessels that anchored at Saint Croix Island. An iron musket or arquebus support was found at one of two possible locations on the island. (Figure 7.13). It bears a strong resemblance to an oarlock, except that illustrated oarlocks tend to be larger and to have prongs set in a slightly more vertical position to prevent the oar from slipping (Barnes 1988:165). Musket supports from Jamestown, Virginia, from the John Alden House in Duxbury, Massachusetts (Figure 7.14), and from Fort La Tour have broad supports comparable to the Saint Croix Island example (Kelso and others 1999:12; Pilgrim Hall Museum 2006; Barka 1965:306, Figure 97). The Saint Croix Island example has a broken spike; ordinarily, the spike was set into the top of a wooden pole (une fourquine) and bound with an iron reinforcement band. The gun support was supposed to be of a length proportionate to the stature of the man-at-arms and its deployment is shown in a sequence of engravings in Jacques De Gheyn’s 1608 book, Maniement d’Arms (Figure 7.15). Figure 7.14 (left) Musket rest from Alden Site, Duxbury, MA, 8 cm across. (Courtesy of Alden House Museum) Saint Croix Island, Maine A second type of iron support was found, exhibiting two prongs which each supported a missing, pivoting element (208). It also bore a hollow socket. No seventeenth-century use for this object has been identified and a nineteenthcentury origin is suspected (Temple University 1969: Item 20-734-69). Two flintlock gun cocks were discovered by the Gruber team, both in degraded condition. Both appear to be variations on French “gooseneck” types of cocks. One example (1579) lacks its upper jaw and screw, but it may be dated to the second half of the eighteenthcentury or later by its flat exterior face (Faulkner 1994:76,77). The second gunlock displays more of an attenuated “gooseneck,” but cannot be precisely dated. These apparently post-date the French occupation of the island and may have been discarded by hunters or traders. Champlain does provide some information bearing on the defense of the island, which was selected largely because of its defensive features: “Vessels could pass up the river only at the mercy of the cannon on this island…” (Champlain 1922:33 [1613]). One of the first activities after the discovery of the island was the construction of “a barricade on a little islet a short distance from the island, which served as a station for placing our cannon” (Champlain 1922:274[1613]). Indeed, Champlain’s 1613 map of Saint Croix Island shows a single cannon mounted on one of its nubbles (Figure 7.16). Two other cannon are shown on the southern tip of the island, and a third location on the north of the island is identified as “D Platte forme ou on mettoit du canon.” No cannon have ever been found at Saint Croix Island. Those from the de Mons occupation were certainly removed to Port-Royal in 1605. In the mid-1850s a cache of five cannon balls was discovered on the island nubble. A detailed description of this discovery was submitted by Peter E. Vose of Dennysville, Maine, for publication in the Register of the New England Historic Genealogical Society: AN ANCIENT RELIC.- I have in my possession a cannon ball of about one and a half pounds weight, which 93 Figure 7.15 Musquetier from De Gheyns, ca. 1608. (Library of Congress) Figure 7.16 (right) Champlain’s 1613 map of St. Croix Island showing cannon. (Library of Congress) 94 Chapter 7: Metallic and Metallurgical Artifacts (with four others) was dug up on the Island of St. Croix, in the St. Croix River, some two or three years since. It has the appearance of having been roughly cast, and bears very evident marks of old age. The person from whom I received the ball informed me that one of the others, weighing about four pounds when found, was burst open on one side and disclosed a centre filled with lead, and that he succeeded in opening another of smaller size which also contained lead. I have no doubt but that they were brought from France in the year 1604, by the Sieur De Monts, and left by him on that island when he ceased to occupy it, in 1605. ..The balls were accidently found while digging in the bank of the “little isle,” about one and a half feet below the surface, by a person who was wholly unacquainted with the history of the island. (Vose 1859) Vose donated his cannon ball to the Society in 1879 (NEHGS Catalog CAB 30, 39). Edmund Slafter’s Champlain (1886 2:33) indicates: At our solicitation, the ball, belonging to Mr. Vose has recently been presented to the New England Historical [sic] Genealogical Society, of which he is a member. It is of iron, perfectly round, two and a quarter inches in diameter, and weighs 22 ¾ oz. avoirdupois. There can be no reasonable doubt that these balls are relics of the little French colony of 1604, and probably are the only memorial of the kind now in existence. The cannon ball was sold by the New England Historic Genealogical Society at auction on May 18, 2000. Its relatively small caliber supports an early date, but this is impossible to determine without a physical examination. Artillery was progressively standardized under Maximilien de Bethune, Duc de Sully during Henry IV’s reign (1589-1610). A 5.71 cm (2 ¼ in) caliber ball could have been fired by a gun the size of a faucon, known to have been used on the 1604-1605 expedition. The 1.81 kg (4 lb) ball could have been used by a larger-caliber piece, possibly a moyenne or bâtarde. Excavations at eighteenth-century (English) Fort Frederick in Pemaquid, Maine yielded 0.45, 1.36 and 1.81 kg (1, 3, and 4 lb) projectiles as well as hollow bomb-shells (Bradley and Camp 1994:64-65). At Fort La Tour at Portland Point, New Brunswick, the cannon balls ranged in size from 0.34 to 3.62 kg (12 oz to 8 lb), and in diameter from 5.4 cm (2 1/8 in) to 10 cm (4 in). The majority of cannon balls were under 2.27 kg (5 lb) in weight (Barka 1965:298-299). Unidentified iron Numerous deteriorated and undatable scraps of sheet iron were found at the north end of the island. These include fragments of strap iron, probably used in modern times as barrel hoops. A terminal of an iron casting was found in one excavation unit, which bears a faint resemblance to a sword hilt terminal (875). A possible planing bit was recovered from another unit (637). A tanged, spatulate shape of unknown function was also found. This piece bears a resemblance to an object found by Barka at Fort La Tour, which he identifies as “a possible part of a wing bolt” (Barka 1965: Plate 70). Modern iron artifacts found in surface contexts across the island are omitted from this discussion. LEAD Lead artifacts with possible French military and nautical use were recovered by Gruber’s team at Saint Croix Island. There is also evidence for the use of scrap lead for molding bullets, but this is a relatively small collection compared with 188 such pieces found at Fort St. George (Brain 2007:147). Munitions During the French period of occupation the arquebus would have been the principal firearm used in defense and in hunting. The only known contemporary image of Champlain shows him firing his arquebus, Saint Croix Island, Maine 95 Figure 7.17 Champlain in battle. (Library of Congress) which he stated he had loaded with four bullets at the time (Figure 7.17; Champlain 1922 1:232 [1613]). Gruber (1970:106) states that five lead musket balls, 16 mm in diameter (.63 caliber), were found, along with five pieces of shot, 6 mm (.23 caliber) in diameter. Tremer’s inventory lists seven musket balls of unidentified diameter from the northern portion of the island (Tremer 1970:31). Of these, only four musket balls are preserved in the NPS collections, two of which have associations with Feature 1 and Wall B (192, 195). Their diameters are 16 mm (.63 caliber) and 15 mm (.58 caliber). This is slightly larger than the size range of the 25 lead mold-made musket balls found at Fort La Tour (Barka 1965:310). Lead balls from Fort St. George ranged from 9.9 mm (.39 caliber) to 18 mm (.73 caliber) (Brain 1995:78; Brain 2007:146). The human skeleton designated ‘JR102C’ found at Jamestown had been shot with a 50 mm (.60 caliber) lead bullet from either a matchlock caliver or pistol (Kelso and Straube 2004:115). A single piece of lead sprue was recovered from the site, from Feature 1 (Figure 7.18a). This example reveals the cuts where balls were removed. Sprue is commonly found at military sites, indicating the casting of shot on site. A variety of sprue from cast shot was recovered from Fort Pentagoet (Faulkner and Faulkner 1987:154), Fort St. George (Brain 1995:77; 2007:145,147-148) and at James Fort in Virginia (Kelso et al. 1999:12). Additional evidence for the production of shot from Feature 1 is presented by 31 elongated, tearshaped pieces of lead, and four pieces of spilled lead (Figure 7.18b). The elongated examples appear to represent efforts to make shot by pouring molten lead through a copper strainer into a container of water. 96 Chapter 7: Metallic and Metallurgical Artifacts This tended to produce usable round shot, although it frequently resulted in some waste by the appearance of ‘tails’ as displayed by the Feature 1 examples. Others examples of lead waste were found nearby, and a flattened lead disk was recovered from further west (Figure 7.18c). Figure 7.18 Artifacts made of lead: a, sprue (955) full scale; b, lead waste from round shot production (953), item on left 3.5 cm long; c, spilled lead waste in form of disk (667); d, slice of lead from weight (299), 3.5 cm across. (Drawing by Simon Pressey) Figure 7.19 Lead weight (199). (Drawing by Simon Pressey) Nautical A possible source for the Saint Croix Island lead was also found in Feature 1: a slice or section of a lead weight (Figure 7.18d). The rest of the weight was recovered by the Gruber team in the excavation unit immediately north (Figure 7.19). Sounding weights consisted of large lead castings with an integral pierced hole at the superior end. They were suspended by a cord and used to ascertain the depth of water (Figure 7.20).5 An intact example with rope attached was recovered from the 1686 wreck of the Belle off the coast of Texas, a ship from Sieur de La Salle’s expedition (Texas A&M 2007). The composition of a river or shore bed could be determined by applying a waxy substance to the bottom of the weight and directly recovering samples of sand or rock. Accordingly, the bottom of the Saint Croix Island lead artifact reveals numerous indentations and abrasions, although it lacks the dimpled bottom characteristic of sounding weights from an earlier period and larger class vessel such as the Mary Rose, (sank in July, 1545) (Stimson 2005:277-279). The upper portion of the Saint Croix Island example is missing but instead shows scars where slices of lead were cut out and probably melted down for casting bullets. Utensils A poorly preserved lead/tin spoon was recovered from Feature 1 (Figure 7.21) This was recovered in two pieces, a lower, bowl component, and a stem with simple knop. Examples of medieval lead/tin spoons with simple or acorn knops are shown by Egan (2005:247-251). Saint Croix Island, Maine 97 Figure 7.20 right Detail of sailor with sounding weight from frontispiece of Waghenaer’s nautical atlas, 1584 edition. (Courtesy of Museum Plantin-Moretus/Prentenkabinet, Antwerp - UNESCO World Heritage) Figure 7.21 Lead or pewter spoon and knop (210). (Drawing by Simon Pressey) Figure 7.22 Small lead or pewter cap (1238). (Drawing by Simon Pressey) Unidentified A small lead cap with attached iron loop was recovered near Wall B (Figure 7.22). This may have been a cap to a bandolier, a leather-covered copper or tin cylinder suspended in groups from a soldier’s belt. It may also have been the backing to a larger, more elaborate clothing button. A fragment of lead sheet with a threaded or ridged end was recovered by Wendell Hadlock within a meter of the ‘Store House Wall’ (112). 98 Chapter 7: Metallic and Metallurgical Artifacts COPPER ALLOY Introduction The presence of European copper and copper alloy artifacts at early North American settlement sites is quite variable.6 The James Fort site of 1607 had a plethora of copper alloy artifacts and scrap, probably associated with fur trading and manufacturing. In contrast the contemporaneous Fort St. George in Maine had scarcely any such artifacts (Kelso and Straub 2004; Brain 2007:140). Because of the popularity of copper and brass trade goods, this difference may be attributed in part to differences in relations with Native Americans between these two English forts. Saint Croix Island falls somewhere between these two extremes: there is moderate evidence for the use of copper and copper alloy items as trade goods and for items of daily use. The short duration and subsequent removal of buildings and goods after a year may also help to explain the relative absence of these metals. Barrel Tap Key A well-preserved copper alloy barrel tap key was discovered in the western area of the habitation (Figure 7.23). Gruber’s interpretation of its location was “in the southeast corner of the west room of the storehouse” (Gruber 1970:106). The key consists of a handle molded and filed into the shape of a fleur-de-lys on top of a cylindrical valve with a transverse hole for controlling liquid flow. Nearly identical examples were unearthed from sixteenthFigure 7.23 Brass spigot key (203). (Drawing a by Simon and seventeenth-century contexts Pressey) at municipal excavations at Chartres in France, complete with taps in the shape of a horse or dog. Eighteenth-century examples found at the Palais de l’Intendant in Québec suggest a gradual replacement of the trifed, fleur-delys handle with a bifurcated shape (Moussette 1994: 56). Moussette remarks that wine glass fragments were found in the context of these taps, and that similar ones were found at Place Royal along with barrel fragments in settings were wine barrels were likely stored (Moussette Figure 7.25 Brass thimble (202). 1994:57, Niellon and Moussette Figure 7.24 Photo of thimble (1793). (Drawing by Simon Pressey) 1985: 121). Thimbles Two closed-end brass thimbles were recovered from undated archaeological contexts. By internal evidence, the thimble from Test Trench G appears to be of earlier date (Figure 7.24). While flattened, it exhibits a smooth, lower surface without a flaring rim. The second thimble, from the southeastern part of the habitation site, is taller and has a lower, flaring rim and appears to be made of sheet copper by the deep drawing Saint Croix Island, Maine 99 method (Figure 7.25; Holmes 1985: 142). Thimbles were certainly used by the occupants of the lighthouse as well as by fishermen repairing their gear on the island during the nineteenth- century. Box Fittings Three metal fittings of a small box with lock and iron handle were recovered from Feature 2 (Figure 7.26a, b). Two matching gilt copper-alloy foliated escutcheons were recovered, each of which served to anchor a small iron drop handle to the top or side of a Figure 7.26 Gilded brass fittings , a (833) 3 cm wide; b, (834); c, conjectural reconstruction. (Drawing a and b by Simon Pressey) wooden container. Each was perforated in four locations for attachment. The third item, an iron lock plate (832) may be associated with the same container as the gilt brass elements. Collectively, they appear to be the fittings for a lidded container the size of a document box. Porringer A sheet copper-alloy container in the shape of a shallow porringer was discovered by Hadlock just north of Wall A (115). Its condition is poor, but surviving edges suggest that it was roughly cut from a larger sheet, perhaps from a kettle (Figure 7.27). No comparative examples are known from other French sites, and the lack of good archaeological context makes its dating problematic. Kettles Numerous fragments of copper-alloy kettles were found by both Hadlock and Gruber on the north end of Saint Croix Island. There are relatively few handles and lugs, and propor- Figure 7.27 Copper alloy porringer (115). (Drawing by Simon tionately more fragments of body sheet metal. Pressey) One lug and associated kettle rim and body fragments were found by Gruber’s team (Figure 7.28a). We lack information about the shape of the Saint Croix Island kettle itself, but otherwise it appears to be closest to lug Type F Variety 2 in Brain’s (1979:165) classification of kettles from the Tunica site. Another lug fragment, entirely detached from its kettle and handle and closely matching (1018) in size and shape, was recovered from Feature 1 (Figure 7.28b). Champlain documents the use of such kettles by Europeans for collecting fresh water (Champlain 1922:353[1613]), as trade items (Champlain 1922:109,395 [1613]) and as a Native American burial item (Champlain 1922:109 [1613]). 100 Chapter 7: Metallic and Metallurgical Artifacts Figure 7.28 Copper kettle lug fragments: a, (1018), 23 mm tall, construction detail not to scale; b, (951). (Drawing by Simon Pressey) Figure 7.29 Copper alloy sheet fragments: a-b triangular; c-d, rectangular; e-g, scrap (all 846). (Drawing by Simon Pressey) Figure 7.30 Rolled and folded copper alloy fragments, a, (950), b, (949). (Drawing by Simon Pressey) Scrap Several fragments of copper-alloy sheet metal appear to have originated from kettles, many of which have been cut and shaped. These include rectangles (Figures 7.29a-c), and triangles (Figure 7.29d). Fragments of trimmed copper alloy sheets have been recovered from a contact period site on the upper St. Croix River (Cox 2000) and commonly occur at other contact period sites along the Eastern seaboard, most notably the Jamestown Fort (Kelso and Straube 2004). These fragments may represent evidence for French manufacture of trinkets for trade from their own kettles. Copper fragments cluster around Walls A and B. Since no Native American artifacts are present in this area, it may be presumed that strictly European activity is represented. Other fragments may simply represent discarded fragments of worn kettles and containers (Figures 7.29e,f). Fragments of copper-alloy fittings and scrap are represented by three objects from Feature 1 and one object found by Hadlock west of the oil shed. Items (950) and (949) represent pieces of sheet metal that have been rolled and folded (Figures 7.30a,b). Item (948) consists of a piece of copper-alloy sheet used as sheathing or flashing, bearing the imprint of a possible wooden element it was wrapped around (Figure 7.31). Ferules and beads Four rolled copper-alloy metal objects were found. One of these (204) may consist of a ferule for a brush or tool (Figure 7.32a). The three others appear to be beads, including (952) (Figure 7.32b) and (1019) (Figure 7.32c), found in the habitation area, and (116), found in the area of the neck of Burial 2 by Wendell Hadlock (Figure 7.32d). A fibrous plant material is preserved in the bead’s interior. Saint Croix Island, Maine 101 Figure 7.32 Copper alloy objects, full scale: a, ferule or bead (204); b, copper bead (952); c, bead (1019; d, bead found in area of neck of Burial 2 (116). (Drawing by Simon Pressey) Figure 7.31 Copper alloy flashing (948), 8 cm across. (NPS photograph) Coin or jeton A broken half of a copper alloy coin or jeton was found in the northwestern area of the habitation. This object may bear the impression of two, parallel, curved lines on one surface, but there is no trace of a raised edge or edge device (Figure 7.33). At nearly 3 cm (1.18 in) in diameter, it would be large for a jeton, and so may well be a coin. See also Brewer and Horvath (2008) to compare with a sixteenth-century French site in Florida. Nineteenth-century toy cannon The breech end of a copper alloy toy cannon was discovered by the Gruber team at the south of Saint Croix Island (Figure 7.34). This piece also once bore two trunnions and cascabel, now removed. The bore and touch hole are completely drilled through, and it appears that the cannon was at one time functional. A rough comparison of the shape of the cannon compared with intact examples suggests that it is of late eighteenth- or early nineteenth- century date. Copper alloy toy cannons are commonly found at postmedieval sites in Britain. The Saint Croix Island example is almost certainly associated with the early nineteenth-century occupation of the south end of the island. Figure 7.33 Broken and corroded copper alloy coin or jeton (200). (Drawing by Simon Pressey) Figure 7.34 Copper alloy toy cannon fragment, probably nineteenth-century (205). (Drawing by Simon Pressey) 102 Chapter 7: Metallic and Metallurgical Artifacts METALLURGY With the possible exception of Fort St. George in Maine, the earliest European settlement sites in the Northeast have yielded evidence for the assaying of ores. 7 Fragments of ceramic crucibles are among several artifacts found at the site of early 1540s fortifications built by Jacques Cartier and the sieur de Roberval at Cap-Rouge, Quebec (Samson 2007). Martin Frobisher searched in vain for gold and silver ore on Kodlunarn Island in Frobisher Bay, leaving evidence for mining and assaying from his second and third voyages in 1577 (Fitzhugh and Olin 1993). Evidence for metallurgy from the period 1585-1587 was uncovered at Fort Raleigh National Historic Site by J. C. Harrington, consisting of “very thin, dense ware [sherds which were] probably from small…goldsmith’s crucibles” from an area about 60.1 m (200 ft) northwest of the fort entrance (Harrington 1962:37; Noel Hume 1998). Evidence for metallurgy, including bone-ash cupels, has also turned up in early contexts at Jamestown (Kelso and Straube 2004:159-161). By the opening of the seventeenth century, hope for the discovery of precious metals in Acadia was waning. However, the mines of the Bay of Fundy proved to be a constant distraction for the sieur de Mons and Champlain. During their first visit to the vicinity of Saint Mary Bay in today’s Nova Scotia in 1604, Champlain noted: In this place there is a very good silver mine, according to the report of the miner who accompanied me, Master Simon. Some leagues farther on there is a little stream called River Boulay where the tide rises half a league into the land, at the mouth of which vessels of a hundred tons can easily ride at anchor. Quarter of a league from here there is a good harbor for vessels, where we found an iron mine, which our miner estimated would yield fifty percent. Advancing three leagues farther on to the north-east, we saw another good iron mine, near which is a river surrounded by beautiful and attractive meadows. (Champlain 1922:246-247 [1613]) Even as the habitation was later being built on Saint Croix Island, the Sieur de Mons sent Champlain to evaluate other nearby mines: Some days after, sieur de Monts determined to ascertain where the mine of pure copper was which he had searched for so much. With this object in view he dispatched me together with a savage named Messamouet, who asserted that he knew the place well. I set out in a small barque of five or six tons, with nine sailors. Some eight leagues from the island towards the River St. John, we found a mine of copper which was not pure, yet good according to the report of the miner, who said it would yield eighteen per cent. Further on we found others inferior to this. When we reached the place where we supposed that it was, which we were hunting for, the savage could not find it, so that it was necessary to come back, leaving the search for another time. (Champlain 1922:278,279 [1613]). Lescarbot’s earlier account sheds more light on Master Simon: When they were ready to leave the island, Champdoré was sent back to St. Mary’s Bay with a mining engineer who had been brought along to extract silver and iron from the ore. (Lescarbot 1911:242 [1611]) Master Simon was clearly a mining engineer and metallurgist and not simply the colony’s blacksmith (Appendix 3). Champlain’s and Lescarbot’s narratives indicate that assaying was to occur at the mines, and must have involved the use of a portable assaying oven, or refractory bricks to quickly build one. Cupellation was a common method of assaying, or evaluating the concentration of pure metal within a sample of ore. Saint Croix Island, Maine Samples of ore were mixed with fluxes, depending on the element present in the ore, and added to a crucible which has been pre-heated to 2,000 degrees F. Lead was added, and the crucible was left for a predetermined time to fuse its contents. Many late sixteenth-century crucibles were made in Obernzell, Germany, in addition to Hessia, and had a distinctive triangular shape and composition, often including graphite (Martinon-Torres and others 2003: Figure 4). A fire-brick assaying furnace was necessary to heat the ore (Agricola 1912:176,181 [1556]). The contents were poured into a mold, and after cooling, the lead button at the bottom would be cleaned and set inside the cupel. The cupel was a squat, thick-walled vessel made of a refractory ceramic body also containing bone ash. The cupel absorbs the lead when heated to its melting point, leaving behind a bead of the precious metal, which is then weighed. Careful attention must be paid to the weight of the metal in relation to the weight of ore to determine the potential productivity of the mine. 103 Figure 7.35 Possible metallurgical ceramic, now missing: a, c (J. Cotter, photograph); b, conjectural profile. Figure 7.36 Metallurgical ceramic production showing lids (M), from Agricola (1556:217) (Library of Congress) The “Metallurgical Vessel” Three fragments of an earthenware vessel apparently used in metallurgy were discovered by the Gruber project excavators in 1969 (Figure 7.35; Tremer 1970:4, 12). John Cotter, who had certainly examined numerous ceramics used in metallurgy, photographed one of them and published the image which he labeled “20-35-69 Earthenware, metallurgical vessel sherd with flange on rim interior. Thick fire clay. Possible crucible” (Cotter 1978a, 1978b:69,70). The images show a rounded buff earthenware form with a flanged rim. This form differs from the earlier crucibles, cupels, scorifiers, and other metallurgical artifacts described by Marcos Martinón-Torres and others from a Renaissance laboratory in Oberstockstall, Austria (2003:Figure 3). However, the vessel may represent a French, rather than Hessian or Austrian form. It also is similar in appearance to lids produced for metallurgical vessels in an engraving by Agricola (1494-1555) in his De Re Metallica of 1556 (Figure 7.36; Agricola 1912 [1556]). If a lid, the Saint Croix Island ceramics may have served in the preparation of ores but not in cupellation, which required abundant oxygen. Agricola states, “But ore which is rich in metal is neither burned nor crushed nor washed, but is roasted, lest that method of preparation should lose some of the metal. When the fires have been kindled, this kind of ore is roasted in an enclosed pot, which is stopped up with lute” (Agricola 1912:231-232[1556]). 104 Chapter 7: Metallic and Metallurgical Artifacts NOTES 1. X-ray florescence analysis will be undertaken in a later phase of analysis to source these copper-alloy metals. 2. Saint Croix Island metal artifacts have suffered from years of attrition and corrosion on and off the island. Various European and indigineous groups may have visited the island after the sieur de Mons and Platrier occupations to retrieve metal objects. The 1796-1797 excavations resulted in additional loss of site artifacts. Quarrying and agricultural activities by island lighthouse keepers further reduced the integrity of the island’s archeological heritage. The marine environment is harsh on metals generally, and once removed from the ground they corrode beyond recognition. 3. Catalogue numbers in the format “20-000-00” were assigned by Temple University. In 1993, the North Atlantic Region’s Division of Cultural Resource Management recognized that the Saint Croix Island artifact collection was dispersed among several institutions from Philadelphia to Bar Harbor and implemented an accountability project in 1996. All objects from accession SACR 001 were catalogued by the NPS regional Archeological Collections Management Program team and returned to the Sawtelle Collections Facility at Acadia National Park in Bar Harbor. 4. Artifacts are subsequently referred to by their ANCS catalogue number suffix. For example, artifact SACR 937 is referred to as (937). 5. Lescarbot noted in the course of sailing off of the Grand Banks in 1606 the manner of heaving the “lead”: “This sound is a piece of lead of seven or eight pounds weight, in the form of a pyramid, tied to one or more cords; and at the larger end, which is flat, is smeared some grease and butter; then the sails are struck, and the sound thrown; when the bottom is felt, and the lead ceases to draw, they stop paying out the cord, which they call the line. So, our sound when drawn up brought with it some small black stones and one white one and a bit of shell, having also a cavity in the grease, whereby we judged that the bottom was of rock.” (Lescarbot 1911 2:304 [1618]). 6. Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc; bronze is an alloy of copper and tin. Native Americans in the Northeast had access to pure copper from mines in the Maritimes and Great Lakes regions. 7. Fort St. George in Popham, Maine, has recently revealed evidence for iron smelting in the form of bloomery furnaces. See Jeffrey Brain 2010:13-28. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The author thanks Gargoyle Partners for their support of the illustration of the metal artifacts by Simon Pressey. Bruce Bourque and Scott Mosher of the Maine State Museum kindly provided access to several of the Saint Croix Island artifacts on exhibit. REFERENCES CITED Acadia National Park n.d Artifact catalogue cards on file, Saint Croix Island International Historic Site archives, Acadia National Park, Bar Harbor. Agricola, Georg 1912 Georgius Agricola De Re Metallica [1556]. Translated by Herbert Clark Hoover and Lou Henry Hoover. The Mining Magazine, London. Barka, Norman F. 1965 Historic Sites Archaeology at Portland Point, New Brunswick, Canada, 1631-c.1850 A.D. Unpublished Ph.D. thesis, Department of Anthropology, Harvard University. Barnes, Frank T. 1988 An Illustrated Index of New England Iron, 1660-1860. Christopher Publishing House, Hanover, MA. Bourque, Bruce 2006 Personal communication, Feb. 17. Bradley, Robert and Helen Camp 1994 The Forts of Pemaquid. Occasional Publications in Maine Archaeology 10. The Maine Historic Preservation Commission and Maine Archaeological Society, Augusta. Brain, Jeffrey P. 1979 Tunica Treasure. Papers of the Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology Vol. 71, Harvard University, Cambridge. 1995 Fort St. George. Unpublished report, Peabody Essex Museum, Salem. 2007 Fort St. George: Archaeological Investigation of the 1607-1608 Popham Colony. Occasional Publications in Maine Archaeology 12. The Maine State Museum and Maine Historic Preservation Commission. Saint Croix Island, Maine 105 2010 Fort St. George XIII. Peabody Essex Museum, Salem, Massachusetts. Brewer, David M. and Elizabeth Horvath 2008 In Search of Lost Frenchmen: Archeological Investigation at Canaveral NS. Accessed online 4/2011 at: http://www.nps.gov/archeology/sites/npSites/canaveral.htm Champlain, Samuel 1922 The Works of Samuel de Champlain, Vol. I. Champlain Society, Toronto. [1613] Chretien, Yves 2006 Personal communication. Cotter, John L. 1978a English Text, St. Croix National Historical Site: A Beginning in Historical Archaeology. Unpublished report on file, Acadia National Park, Bar Harbor, Maine. 1978b Premier Établissement Français en Acadie: Sainte-Croix. Dossiers de l’Archéologie 27:60-71. Cox, Steven 2000 An Early Contact Native Site on the Upper St. Croix River. Maine Archaeological Society Bulletin 40(2):1-10. Crowninshield, Mary Bradford 1886 All Among the Lighthouses. D. Lothrop Company, Boston. Accessed on-line April 2011 at: http://books.google.com/ books Denys, Nicholas 1908 [1672] The Description and Natural History of the Coasts of North America (Acadia). Translation by William F. Ganong. The Champlain Society, Toronto. Diderot, Denis 1993 A Diderot Pictorial Encyclopedia of Trades and Industry, edited by Charles C. Gillispe, Volume 1. Dover Publications Inc., New York. Egan, Geoff 2005 Material Culture in London in an Age of Transition. Museum of London Archaeology Service Monograph 19. Museum of London. Every, Rachel and Maggie Richards 2005 Knives and Knife Parts. In Before the Mast: Life and Death Aboard the Mary Rose, edited by Julie Gardiner and Michael J. Allen. The Archaeology of the Mary Rose, Volume 4. Cromwell Press, Trowbridge, England. Pp. 144-153. Faulkner, Alaric 1994 Gunlocks. In The Forts of Pemaquid, Maine: An Archaeological and Historical Study. Occasional Publications in Maine Archaeology 10, pp. 69-78. Faulkner, Alaric and Gretchen Faulkner 1987 The French at Pentagoet, 1635-1674. Occasional Publications in Maine Archaeology 5. Maine Historic Preservation Commission, Maine Archaeological Society, Augusta, and Special Publications of the New Brunswick Museum. Fitzgerald, William 1990 Chronology to Cultural Process: Lower Great Lakes Archaeology, 1500-1650. Unpublished Ph.D. thesis, Anthropology Department, McGill University, Montreal. Fitzgerald, William R., Laurier Turgeon, Ruth Whitehead, and James W. Bradley 1993 Late Sixteenth-Century Basque Banded Copper Kettles. Historical Archaeology 27(1):44-57. Fitzhugh, William W. and Jacqueline S. Olin (editors) 1993 Archaeology of the Frobisher Voyages. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D.C. Gheyn, Jacob de 1608 Maniement d’armes, d’arqvebuses, mousqvetz, et piqves. R. de Baudous, Amsterdam. Gruber, Jacob 1970 The French Settlement on St. Croix Island, Maine: Excavations for the National Park Service, 1968-1969. Unpublished report conducted under National Park Service Contract No. 14-10-5-950-23. Temple University, Philadelphia. Harper, J. Russell 1957 Two Seventeenth-century Copper Kettle Burials. Anthropologica 4:11-36. Harrington, J.C. 1962 Search for the Cittee of Raleigh: Archeological Excavations at Fort Raleigh National Historic Site, North Carolina. National Park Service Archeological Research Series No. 6. Washington, D.C. 106 Chapter 7: Metallic and Metallurgical Artifacts Holmes, Edwin F. 1985 A History of Thimbles. Cornwall Books, New York. Kelso, William, Nicholas M. Luccketti and Beverly A. Straube 1999 Jamestown Rediscovery V. Association for the Preservation of Virginia Antiquities. Richmond, Virginia. Kelso, William M. and Beverly A. Straube 2004 Jamestown Rediscovery, 1994-2004. The Association for the Preservation of Virginia Antiquities, Richmond. Kenyon, Walter Andrew 1986 The History of James Bay 1610-1686. Archaeology Monograph 10. Royal Ontario Museum, Toronto. Lescarbot, Marc 1911 [1611] The History of New France. Volume 2. Translated by W. L. Grant. The Champlain Society, Toronto. Martinón-Torres, Marcos, Thilo Rehren, and Sigrid von Osten 2003 A 16th Century Lab in a 21st century Lab: Archaeometric Study of the Laboratory Equipment from Oberstockstall (Kirchberg am Wagram, Austria). Antiquity 77(298). In Antiquity Project Gallery, http://antiquity.ac.uk/ProjGall/martinon/ McManus, Edward 1980 A Conservation Survey of Metal Artifacts from St. Croix Island National Monument. Memorandum prepared for North Atlantic Regional Office, National Park Service, Boston, Massachusetts. Moussette, Marcel 1994 Le Site du Palais de l’Intendant à Québec. Septentrion, Québec. Niellon, Francoise and Marcel Moussette 1985 L’Habitation de Champlain. Dossier 58, Québec, Ministère des Affaires Culturelles. Noel Hume, Ivor 1998 Roanoke Island. In In Search of This and That, pp. 96-109. Colonial Williamsburg Foundation, Williamsburg, Virginia. Ottaway, Patrick, and Nicola Rogers 2002 Craft, Industry and Everyday Life: Finds from Medieval York. The Archaeology of York, Vol. 17: The Small Finds. Council for British Archaeology of York. Pilgrim Hall Museum 2006 Infantry: the Musketeer. On-line at: http://www.pilgrimhall.org/ArmsMusketeer%20.htm Samson, Gilles 2007 Un Eldorado en Nouvelle-France. Cartier-Roberval, Journal de Bord, Semaine du 27 au 31 août. Online at: http://www.capitale.gouv.qc.ca/decouvrir/cartier-roberval/journal/journal0827-0831.html Slafter, Edmund 1886 Champlain. Boston, MA. Stimson, Alan 2005 The Navigation Instruments. In Before the Mast, edited by Julie Gardiner with Michael J. Allan. pp.267292. The Archaeology of the Mary Rose Vol. 4. The Mary Rose Trust Ltd, Portsmouth, England. Temple University 1969 Artifact Catalog, St. Croix Island, Summer 1969. Temple University. Unpublished catalog on file, Acadia National Park, Bar Harbor. Texas A& M 2007 Conservation of Closed Wooden Containers: A Chest from the Belle. La Salle Shipwreck Project, Texas Historical Commission. Online at: http://nautarch.tamu.edu/CRL/Report5/Chest.htm Tremer, Charles Walter 1970 Appendix to Archaeological Report on the French Settlement on St. Croix Island. Unpublished report on file, Acadia National Park, Bar Harbor, Maine. Turgeon, Laurier 2004 The French in New England before Champlain. In Champlain, the Birth of French America, edited by Raymonde Litalien and Denis Vaugeois, pp. 98-112. Les Éditions de Septentrion, Montréal. Vose, Peter E. 1859 An Ancient Relic. The New England Historic and Genealogical Register 13(2): 160.